The Effect of Energy Consumption, Income, and Population Growth on CO2 Emissions: Evidence from NARDL and Machine Learning Models

With population and income growth, the need for energy has increased in developing emerging economies, which inevitably led to an increase carbon dioxide emissions (CO2e). This paper investigates impact of consumption on CO2e influenced by per capita, income. In particular, this whether or not consumption, intensity, impacts China, India, USA. The study applied non-linear Autoregressive distributed lag (NARDL) machine learning techniques. We found a significant capita CO2 Furthermore, results revealed that, when increased, but decreased confirmed that growth increases only India. decrease intensity significantly improves environmental quality China Finally, we forecasted trend from 2017 2025. upcoming levels Conversely, demonstrated downward